Baby brain development

When the babies are born, just as the synaptic connection are not complete, so too the myelin sheath does not yet cover all of the nerves in the nervous system, the process of producing synaptic connection, pruning away those that are not being use, and myelinating the connecting that are left will continue throughout childhood and adolescence.

Each neuron may be connected to as many as 15000, other neurons making very complex neural pathways, sometimes referred to as the brain’s wiring. Forming and reinforcing these synapse, or connections, is the major task of infant brain development.

During the first three years, child's brain triples in weight and establishes about 1,000 trillion nerve connections.

The moments of soothing, playfulness, touching and tickling, hugging and holding that happen between mother and baby, stimulate the brain and build connections that are the foundations of intelligence being a decent and wonderful human being.
Baby brain development

What is brain mapping?

Brain mapping is a field that encompasses a wide range of scientific areas from MR physics, molecular dynamics and the mathematical modeling of data to the anatomical and physiological measurement of brain systems and the study of complex cognitive functions.

These all have been applied to understand the human condition in health and disease. Each type of brain mapping has its strengths and weakness, some can distinguish the smallest structure; others can track function but cannot resolve structure less than half an inch apart.

In brain mapping, computers are used to analyze, visualize, archive and disseminate the information that constitutes the map.

In fact, many of the modern approaches used to study the brain are possible only with computers and several even acknowledge that dependence in their name or acronym.

The most evidence application of computers in mapping is in the field of visualization. Computerized visualization of data that have been converted into a cartographic image of a spatial domain best communicates the meaning of quantitative information.

The complexity and variability of human brain across subjects is so great that reliance on maps and atlases is essential to manipulate, analyze and interpret brain data effectively.

Central of these tasks is the construction of averages, templates and models to describe how the brain and its components are organized.
What is brain mapping?

Neurons

The neuron is the main type of cell in the nervous systems that, in association with neuroglial cells, mediates the information processing that underlies nervous function.

The neurons are the cells specialized to carry on the rapid communications required for coordinated function both within the organism and between the organism and its environment.

They are highly asymmetric cells, with processes that often extend a considerable distance from the cell body.

The exploitation of two characteristics of protoplasm - irritability and conductivity – permits these cells to react to various stimuli in a fraction of second and to transmit the excitation to another location.

In addition some nerve cells possess a secretary capability that enables integration of function through localized and selective effects.

A neurons’ cell body holds its nucleus and most organelles. Cytoplasmic extensions from the cell body allow neurons to detect stimuli, recover signals and signal other cells. Information flows from sensory neurons, to interneurons, to motor neurons.
Neurons 

Morphine as pain reliever

When the pain is severe, such as after major surgery or trauma, the patient may need a type of pain reliever called an opiate, such as morphine, codeine, or Demerol.

Morphine sulfate is a very potent narcotic analgesic used to relieve severe pain such as that produced by myocardial infarction, passage or renal calculi, or terminal conditions.

Morphine is almost effective when given before the client experiences severe pain. Morphine’s analgesic effect allows the client to rest more comfortably.

It is the interaction of morphine with the ongoing biological processes of the body that is responsible for its ability to producer effects like pain relief and/or addiction.

Specially, morphine produces its effect by altering the functioning of neurons. Morphine interacts with the so-called opioid receptors in the brain. Receptors are complex molecules of high relative molecular mass that are composed of condensed amino acid. They recognized particular substrates (in this case morphine) and on binding to the small partner, the receptor acts to release a signal that can elicit a physiological effect.

Opiates are sometimes called ‘narcotics’ because in high doses they can produce a dazed state of ‘narcosis’ or dream-like state, resulting from massive reductions on the activity of the nervous system.
Morphine as pain reliever

Vascular dementia

Vascular dementia is the loss of cognitive functions to a degree that interferes with ADLs (activities of daily livings), resulting from ischemic or hemorrhagic cerebrovascular disease or from cardiovascular or circulatory disturbances that injure brain regions that are important for memory, cognitive and behavior.

Blood clots or fat deposits can block a vessel from delivering oxygen and nutrients to part of the brain.

With progressive aging of the population, vascular dementia might become the first etiology of all dementias.

A collaborative study conducted in Europe reported that vascular dementia represents 15-20% of all dementia and Alzheimer’s disease between 60-70%.

Signs and symptoms vary depending on the area and extent of damage to the brain.  The physical signs that may appear alone or in various combinations during the course of vascular dementia include dysarthria, hemiparesis, hemianopsia, and ataxia.

When damage on the deep brain areas leads to degeneration of the subcortical white matter, prominent symptoms are memory disturbance, changes in executive function, apathy, and amotivation.
Vascular dementia

Cranial nerves

The 12 cranial nerves control motor and sensory functions of the head and neck, including innervation of voluntary and involuntary muscles and reception of general and special sensory information.

Because they merger from the cranium, they are called cranial nerves as opposed to spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal column.

The cranial nerves function as modified spinal nerves. As a group, they have both sensory and motor components: however, individual nerves may be purely sensory, purely motor, or mixed (both motor and sensory).

Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are peripheral nerves of the brain. The other pairs are nerves of the brainstem (and in one case, partially of the cervical spinal cord).

They supply structures of the head and neck and in the case of the vagus nerve, structures of the trunk.

The cranial nerves pass through or into the cranial bones and are numbered I to XII roughly in order from top to bottom.

Their functions are those of the head: some are concerned with awareness of, and communication with, the environment; and some are concerned with sustenance the gut tube and movements associated with it.
Cranial nerves

Progressive supranuclear palsy

Progressive supranuclear palsy of PSP is the name Dr. J. Clifford Richardson chose to designate a unusual clinical syndrome he first identified in the 1963.

During the past 30 years, neurologists confirm that progressive supranuclear palsy is a universal, sporadic and not uncommon neurodegeneration of middle and late life. 

Progressive supranuclear palsy or Steele-Richardson-Olszewski disease is defined as a typical parkinsonian syndrome characterized by supranuclear gaze impairment, prominent and early postural instability with fails, axial greater than appendicular rigidity and poor or absent response to levodopa.

It is also characterized clinically by neck dystopia, Parkinson, pseudobulbar palsy, and frontal lone-type dementia.

The condition is progressive and leads to death on average about 6 years from onset.

On gross examination the brain usually shows only minor abnormalities or may appear normal. On slicing, the ventricles may be slightly enlarged.

The midbrain is shrunken, particularly the superior colliculi, the mesencephalic tegmentum, and the periaqueductal grey matter.
Progressive supranuclear palsy

Serotonin in brain

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter with broad functions in brain development, neuronal activity and behaviors. 

Neurotransmitters are molecules that ferry messages between nerve cells. Serotonin has traditionally been viewed as a modulatory neurotransmitter. It was first demonstrated in the brain central nervous system in 1953.

Through its diverse projections, the serotonin system plays a role in modulating, sleep, appetite, memory/cognitive function, impulsivity, sexual behavior, motor function and affective responsiveness. 

Serotonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. In the brain, tryptophan is converted to serotonin in a two-step reaction, with each step catalyzed by a different enzyme and then transferred to storage vesicle in neurons.

Serotogenic neurons arise from the raphe nucleus of the brain stem and they project upward to most areas of the brain and downward to peripheral nerve terminals. Raphe nuclei located in the midline of the brain stem.
Serotonin in brain

Gray matter of the brain

The brain and spinal cord can be grossly divided into gray matter and white matter. White matter is surrounding gray matter. White matter is made up of nerve fibers.

On cross section of the spinal cord, the gray matter has a butterfly-like appearance and contains nerve cell bodies. The gray mater contains synapses between sensory, motor and interneurons.

In the gray matter of the cord, connections can be made between incoming and outgoing nerve fibers which provide the basis for reflex action. The spinal cord functions as both a reflex center and a conduction pathway to and from the brain.

Most of the brain functions are believed to be located in the gray matter and to occupy a given area of the gray matter layer, called the cortex or cortical surface.

Gray matter centers in the brain stem control many vital body functions without conscious involvement or control by the cerebrum.

Among these functions are the heart and respiration rates, blood pressure constriction and dilation of blood vessel, coughing and reflex activities of the digestive system such as vomiting.
Gray matter of the brain

Aging mind

Aging actually begins at birth and continues throughout life. Aging is an inevitable as death and taxes.

Early neuropsychological studies of cognitive aging suggest that the process of growing older affects some regions of the brain an associated functions in a selective manner.

The view that aging is synonymous with universal and rapid, cognitive decline is giving way to a recognition that for some aging individuals, metal acuity continues well into advanced age.

Research is showing that the adults brain has much greater capacity for plasticity than previously believed, growing new dendrites and perhaps even new neurons.

The elder brain remain plastic and able to learn new things and create new networks and memories.

In addition, adult brains respond positively to a variety of life experiences and to biochemical intervention. 

Research is showing that dementia, depression and delusions are not normal parts of aging.

The perception of old age differs in different societies and cultures. When people retired at 55 years, those who were 56 years of age were considered old. Today with the retirement ages ranging from 60 to 65, the 56 year olds are no longer considered senior citizen.
Aging mind

Brain function of homeostasis

Human health is dependent on homeostasis within the cells, tissues, and organs of the body.

The term homeostasis came from two Greek words, homeo which means ‘the same’ and stasis which means ‘standing’. Literally translated, ‘staying the same.’

Homeostasis is not a static state, it is a dynamic state. Homeostasis is achieved through a variety of automatic mechanisms that compensates for internal and external changes.

Correcting imbalances to maintain homeostasis requires a variety of body reflexes – that is, automatic responses triggered by various stimuli. Reflexes occurs without conscious control. Two types of reflexes exists: nervous system and hormonal.

The nervous system receives and transmits information via electrical impulses between nerve cells. The nervous system, which consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory receptors and nerves, receptors input from variety of sensors that detect change.

The brain plays a central role in controlling energy intake, in the form of feeding, and energy expenditure including basal metabolism, physical activity and adaptive thermogenesis.

The communication and coordinated action between the brain and the peripheral tissues is achieved by peripherally secreted molecules in response to nutrients and integration of neural endocrine and metabolic signals in the hypothalamus.

At any time, the brain and spinal cord receives thousands of signal from receptors in the body. These signals alert the nervous system to a variety of internal and external conditions.

One good example of homeostasis is the control of water balance in the body. If the body not drink enough, receptors – osmoreceptors and thirst receptors in the brain are stimulated and the body stimulated to drink more, which is a behavioral response mediated through nervous system.

Brain function of homeostasis

Spirituality

Spirituality
People in all culture seek out meaning beyond the material usually within the context of religious practice, but when longstanding religious traditions are found to be unfulfilling, marked changes in belief and practice may come about.

In the eighteenth century the Great Awakening heralds the emergence of Baptist revivalism throughout the American colonies, as the traditional churches of Europe came to be seen as lifeless and impersonal.

In the midst of another transformation, the emergence of spirituality as a way for many people to meet their need for a meaningful life.

This development has been intertwined with evolving models of mental function and psychotherapy.

And since mind and brain are not related, it will also be considered in light of emerging research that sheds light on the neurophysiology that underlies spiritual experiences.

Large majority (84%) of Americans believe that prayer for others can have a positive effect on their recovery from illness.

Many of the “disorders” that psychiatry has described in its lexicon would be considered by these people to reflect a spiritual deficit a much as a problem in the mental health profession’s domain.
Spirituality

Mental disorder populations

Mental disorder populations
Active planning was implemented to treat people with mental disorder in their communities in order to decrease all health care costs. There are thee major populations of individual who may be community based or outpatient mental health care consumers:

The physically disabled or elderly infirm who require home services for mental; health care. These individuals use a variety of payment options that affect the quality and duration of their care at home. The first two payment options, Medicare and Medicaid, which are sponsored by the federal and state governments, are the most common options for individuals in this category. In addition to Medicare and Medicaid, health care costs are funded by private health insurance, health maintenance organizations, or self pay.
Individual with nondisabling mental disorders who are able to continue working and fulfilling their normal social roles. The ability of such individuals to continue their normal roles is supported by the use of psychotropic medications. Psychotropic medications alter the neurochemistry of the brain so that brain chemistry approaches more normal levels. Disabling mental symptoms are reduced to more comfortable levels. Outpatient individual or group therapy augments pharmacotherapy.

Individual who are psychiatrically disabled. There is a growing percentage of people with chronic, disabling mental disorders because of the decreasing public and private support for mental health services. This segment of the population is particularly affected by the current crisis in health care costs. Inadequate funding and lack of comprehensive policy planning left woeful gaps in care, particularly when accompanied by the national trend of deinstitutionalization. Currently, the most commonly used treatment option open to the chronically mentally client is the community mental health center.
Mental disorder populations